Partial Amputation of a Nonreducing Prolapsed Phallus in an Ostrich (Struthio camelus).

A 19-year-old male ostrich (Struthio camelus) was referred to a veterinary teaching hospital (São Paulo State University, Botucatu, Brazil) due to a 6-month history of recurrent prolapse of the phallus. On physical examination, 2 ulcerative wounds were present on the phallus, as well as caseous plaques and myiasis. Conservative treatment resulted in improvement but prolapse of the phallus remained. Thus, a decision was made to perform a partial phallectomy. The surgery was successful and no postoperative complications occurred. When the ostrich was reexamined 6 months postsurgery, the ostrich was alert, in good health, and the surgical site completely healed. The owner verbally reported no recurrence of the phallus prolapse 1 year after surgery.

A new candling procedure for thick and opaque eggs and its application to avian conservation management.

The ability to monitor developing avian embryos and their associated vascular system via candling enables the application of important reproductive management techniques. Egg candling facilitates the confirmation of egg viability throughout the incubation process and identification of a precise position on a vein for the safe extraction of blood. Blood samples may then be analysed to retrieve vital health and genetic information to assist in conservation management. However, the thick or opaque egg shell characteristics of some avian species prevents the observation of egg contents using traditional candling methods, thus limiting management options. This paper tests a novel method of preparing thick-shelled or opaque eggs so that traditional egg candling and blood extraction methods may be applied. Eggs from captive emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae, Latham 1790) and southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius johnsonii, Linnaeus 1758) were obtained, and partial fenestration was performed on two areas of shell either before incubation or at ⅓ of incubation. Hatchability and weight loss were examined as a measure of effect of the fenestration process on the developing embryo. Clear observation of vascular development was successful in 97% of viable fenestrated eggs, without affecting hatchability or weight loss. Blood samples were taken from developing embryos and DNA was successfully extracted for proof of concept of this new technique. The ability to observe vascular development and monitor the developing embryo in thick and opaque eggs will significantly improve both in situ and ex situ population management options such as in ovo sexing in species of concern.

Gene-tree misrooting drives conflicts in phylogenomic coalescent analyses of palaeognath birds.

Phylogenomic analyses of ancient rapid radiations can produce conflicting results that are driven by differential sampling of taxa and characters as well as the limitations of alternative analytical methods. We re-examine basal relationships of palaeognath birds (ratites and tinamous) using recently published datasets of nucleotide characters from 20,850 loci as well as 4301 retroelement insertions. The original studies attributed conflicting resolutions of rheas in their inferred coalescent and concatenation trees to concatenation failing in the anomaly zone. By contrast, we find that the coalescent-based resolution of rheas is premised upon extensive gene-tree estimation errors. Furthermore, retroelement insertions contain much more conflict than originally reported and multiple insertion loci support the basal position of rheas found in concatenation trees, while none were reported in the original publication. We demonstrate how even remarkable congruence in phylogenomic studies may be driven by long-branch misplacement of a divergent outgroup, highly incongruent gene trees, differential taxon sampling that can result in gene-tree misrooting errors that bias species-tree inference, and gross homology errors. What was previously interpreted as broad, robustly supported corroboration for a single resolution in coalescent analyses may instead indicate a common bias that taints phylogenomic results across multiple genome-scale datasets. The updated retroelement dataset now supports a species tree with branch lengths that suggest an ancient anomaly zone, and both concatenation and coalescent analyses of the huge nucleotide datasets fail to yield coherent, reliable results in this challenging phylogenetic context.

Management of intertarsal septic arthritis in an ostrich (Struthio camelus).

A 7-year-old female ostrich (Struthio camelus) presented with lameness, left intertarsal joint swelling and a healing wound on the caudomedial aspect of the joint. Synovial culture revealed Corynebacterium species and radiographs were consistent with progressive septic arthritis. Multiple treatments were attempted including through-and-through joint lavage, intra-articular antibiotics, caudomedial arthrotomy, and regional limb perfusion in conjunction with systemic antibiotics and analgesia. Euthanasia was ultimately performed due to prolonged recumbency and poor prognosis. This report describes novel therapies and a surgical approach utilized for treatment of intertarsal septic arthritis in an ostrich and exemplifies the poor prognosis described in other species presenting with non-responsive septic arthritis of critical joints.

Ratite oils for local transdermal therapy of 4-OH tamoxifen: development, characterization, and ex vivo evaluation.

The anti-inflammatory property of ratite oils as well as its ability to act as a penetration enhancer makes it an ideal agent to be used in transdermal formulations. The present study aims to develop an effective transfersomal delivery of 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT), an anti-cancer drug, using ratite oil as a carrier agent for the treatment of breast cancer (BC). The 4-OHT transfersomes were prepared with and without ratite oils using soy phosphatidylcholine and three different edge activators (EAs) in five different molar ratios using the rotary evaporation-ultrasonication method. Optimal transfersome formulations were selected using physical-chemical characterization and ex vivo studies. Results from physical-chemical characterization of the developed formulations found sodium taurocholate to be the most suitable EA, which recorded highest entrapment efficiency of 95.1 ± 2.70% with 85:15, (w/w) and lowest vesicle size of 82.3 ± 0.02 nm with 75:25, (w/w) molar ratios. TEM and DSC studies showed that the vesicles were readily identified and present in a nearly perfect spherical shape. In addition, formulations with emu oil had better stability than formulations with ostrich oil. Physical stability studies at 4 °C showed that ratite oil transfersomes were stable up to 4 weeks, while transfersomes without ratite oils were stable for 8 weeks. Ex vivo permeability studies using porcine skin concluded that 4-OHT transfersomal formulations with (85:15, w/w) without emu oil have the potential to be used in transdermal delivery approach to enhance permeation of 4-OHT, which may be beneficial in the treatment of BC.

Regulation of vertebrate forelimb development and wing reduction in the flightless emu.

The vertebrate limb is a dynamic structure which has evolved into many diverse forms to facilitate complex behavioral adaptations. The principle molecular and cellular processes that underlie development of the vertebrate limb are well characterized. However, how these processes are altered to drive differential limb development between vertebrates is less well understood. Several vertebrate models are being utilized to determine the developmental basis of differential limb morphogenesis, though these typically focus on later patterning of the established limb bud and may not represent the complete developmental trajectory. Particularly, heterochronic limb development can occur prior to limb outgrowth and patterning but receives little attention. This review summarizes the genetic regulation of vertebrate forelimb diversity, with particular focus on wing reduction in the flightless emu as a model for examining limb heterochrony. These studies highlight that wing reduction is complex, with heterochronic cellular and genetic events influencing the major stages of limb development. Together, these studies provide a broader picture of how different limb morphologies may be established during development.

Improving Phylogenetic Signals of Mitochondrial Genes Using a New Method of Codon Degeneration.

Recovering deep phylogeny is challenging with animal mitochondrial genes because of their rapid evolution. Codon degeneration decreases the phylogenetic noise and bias by aiming to achieve two objectives: (1) alleviate the bias associated with nucleotide composition, which may lead to homoplasy and long-branch attraction, and (2) reduce differences in the phylogenetic results between nucleotide-based and amino acid (AA)-based analyses. The discrepancy between nucleotide-based analysis and AA-based analysis is partially caused by some synonymous codons that differ more from each other at the nucleotide level than from some nonsynonymous codons, e.g., Leu codon TTR in the standard genetic code is more similar to Phe codon TTY than to synonymous CTN codons. Thus, nucleotide similarity conflicts with AA similarity. There are many such examples involving other codon families in various mitochondrial genetic codes. Proper codon degeneration will make synonymous codons more similar to each other at the nucleotide level than they are to nonsynonymous codons. Here, I illustrate a "principled" codon degeneration method that achieves these objectives. The method was applied to resolving the mammalian basal lineage and phylogenetic position of rheas among ratites. The codon degeneration method was implemented in the user-friendly and freely available DAMBE software for all known genetic codes (genetic codes 1 to 33).

Gastrointestinal parasites of a population of emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) in Brazil / Parasitas gastrointestinais de emus Dromaius novaehollandiae de cativeiro no Brasil

Abstract Emus are large flightless birds in the ratite group and are native to Australia. Since the mid-1980s, there has been increased interest in the captive breeding of emus for the production of leather, meat and oil. The aim of this study was to identify gastrointestinal parasites in the feces of emus Dromaius novaehollandiae from a South American scientific breeding. Fecal samples collected from 13 birds were examined by direct smears, both with and without centrifugation, as well as by the fecal flotation technique using Sheather's sugar solution. Trophozoites, cysts and oocysts of protozoa and nematode eggs were morphologically and morphometrically evaluated. Molecular analysis using PCR assays with specific primers for the genera Entamoeba, Giardia and Cryptosporidium were performed. Trophozoites and cysts of Entamoeba spp. and Giardia spp., oocysts of Eimeria spp. and Isospora dromaii, as well as eggs belonging to the Ascaridida order were found in the feces. Three animals were diagnosed with Giardia spp., and three were positive for Entamoeba spp. based on PCR techniques. After analyzing the data, we concluded that emus were infected enzootically by nematode and protozoan species.

Resumo Emus são aves grandes que não voam pertencentes ao grupo das ratitas e são originários da Austrália. Desde meados da década de 1980, aumentou o interesse pela criação de emus em cativeiro para a produção de couro, carne e óleo. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar parasitas gastrointestinais nas fezes de emus Dromaius novaehollandiae de um criatório científico da América do Sul. Amostras de fezes coletadas de 13 aves foram examinadas por esfregaços diretos, tanto com e sem centrifugação, quanto com a técnica de flutuação fecal utilizando solução de açúcar de Sheather. Trofozoítos, cistos e oocistos de protozoários e ovos de nematóides foram avaliados morfologicamente e morfometricamente. Foram realizadas análises moleculares utilizando ensaios de PCR com primers específicos para os gêneros Entamoeba, Giardia e Cryptosporidium. Trofozoítos e cistos de Entamoeba spp. e Giardia spp., oocistos de Eimeria spp. e Isospora dromaii, bem como ovos pertencentes à ordem Ascaridida foram encontrados nas fezes. Três animais foram diagnosticados com Giardia spp., e três foram positivos para Entamoeba spp. com base em técnicas de PCR. Depois de analisar os dados, concluímos que os emus estavam infectados enzooticamente por espécies de nematóides e protozoários.

Attenuated Fgf Signaling Underlies the Forelimb Heterochrony in the Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae.

Powered flight was fundamental to the establishment and radiation of birds. However, flight has been lost multiple times throughout avian evolution. Convergent losses of flight within the ratites (flightless paleognaths, including the emu and ostrich) often coincide with reduced wings. Although there is a wealth of anatomical knowledge for several ratites, the genetic mechanisms causing these changes remain debated. Here, we use a multidisciplinary approach employing embryological, genetic, and genomic techniques to interrogate the mechanisms underlying forelimb heterochrony in emu embryos. We show that the initiation of limb formation, an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in the lateral plate mesoderm (LPM) and myoblast migration into the LPM, occur at equivalent stages in the emu and chick. However, the emu forelimb fails to subsequently proliferate. The unique emu forelimb expression of Nkx2.5, previously associated with diminished wing development, initiates after this stage (concomitant with myoblast migration into the LPM) and is therefore unlikely to cause this developmental delay. In contrast, RNA sequencing of limb tissue reveals significantly lower Fgf10 expression in the emu forelimb. Artificially increasing Fgf10 expression in the emu LPM induces ectodermal Fgf8 expression and a limb bud. Analyzing open chromatin reveals differentially active regulatory elements near Fgf10 and Sall-1 in the emu wing, and the Sall-1 enhancer activity is dependent on a likely Fgf-mediated Ets transcription factor-binding site. Taken together, our results suggest that regulatory changes result in lower expression of Fgf10 and a concomitant failure to express genes required for limb proliferation in the early emu wing bud.

Whole-Genome Analyses Resolve the Phylogeny of Flightless Birds (Palaeognathae) in the Presence of an Empirical Anomaly Zone.

Palaeognathae represent one of the two basal lineages in modern birds, and comprise the volant (flighted) tinamous and the flightless ratites. Resolving palaeognath phylogenetic relationships has historically proved difficult, and short internal branches separating major palaeognath lineages in previous molecular phylogenies suggest that extensive incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) might have accompanied a rapid ancient divergence. Here, we investigate palaeognath relationships using genome-wide data sets of three types of noncoding nuclear markers, together totaling 20,850 loci and over 41 million base pairs of aligned sequence data. We recover a fully resolved topology placing rheas as the sister to kiwi and emu + cassowary that is congruent across marker types for two species tree methods (MP-EST and ASTRAL-II). This topology is corroborated by patterns of insertions for 4274 CR1 retroelements identified from multispecies whole-genome screening, and is robustly supported by phylogenomic subsampling analyses, with MP-EST demonstrating particularly consistent performance across subsampling replicates as compared to ASTRAL. In contrast, analyses of concatenated data supermatrices recover rheas as the sister to all other nonostrich palaeognaths, an alternative that lacks retroelement support and shows inconsistent behavior under subsampling approaches. While statistically supporting the species tree topology, conflicting patterns of retroelement insertions also occur and imply high amounts of ILS across short successive internal branches, consistent with observed patterns of gene tree heterogeneity. Coalescent simulations and topology tests indicate that the majority of observed topological incongruence among gene trees is consistent with coalescent variation rather than arising from gene tree estimation error alone, and estimated branch lengths for short successive internodes in the inferred species tree fall within the theoretical range encompassing the anomaly zone. Distributions of empirical gene trees confirm that the most common gene tree topology for each marker type differs from the species tree, signifying the existence of an empirical anomaly zone in palaeognaths.

Feather and skin development of ostriches Struthio camelus.

Information on feather and skin growth is important for the development of mathematical optimisation nutritional models for ostriches. Ostriches (n = 65) were subjected to a four-stage formulated growth diet programme (pre-starter, starter, grower and finisher), with declining protein and energy content. Nine birds were weighed, stunned, exsanguinated, defeathered, skinned and eviscerated at 1, 54, 84, 104, 115, 132 and 287 days of age. Feathers from four pre-selected locations on the body were harvested and weighed. The wet skin weight, wet unstretched skin size and wet unstretched crown size were measured at each slaughter stage. The live weight, feather and skin yields of the birds increased with age at slaughter, as did feather shaft diameter. Prediction models were developed to estimate the yield of the skin in terms of live weight and of empty body protein weight to aid in diet formulation. The allometry of feather growth was determined from total feather weight, as the maturation rates of the feathers differ from that of the ostrich body. Results from this study will aid in setting up a mathematical optimisation nutritional model for ostriches.

An avian seed dispersal paradox: New Zealand's extinct megafaunal birds did not disperse large seeds.

Often the mutualistic roles of extinct species are inferred based on plausible assumptions, but sometimes palaeoecological evidence can overturn such inferences. We present an example from New Zealand, where it has been widely assumed that some of the largest-seeded plants were dispersed by the giant extinct herbivorous moa (Dinornithiformes). The presence of large seeds in preserved moa gizzard contents supported this hypothesis, and five slow-germinating plant species (Elaeocarpus dentatus, E. hookerianus, Prumnopitys ferruginea, P. taxifolia, Vitex lucens) with thick seedcoats prompted speculation about whether these plants were adapted for moa dispersal. However, we demonstrate that all these assumptions are incorrect. While large seeds were present in 48% of moa gizzards analysed, analysis of 152 moa coprolites (subfossil faeces) revealed a very fine-grained consistency unparalleled in extant herbivores, with no intact seeds larger than 3.3 mm diameter. Secondly, prolonged experimental mechanical scarification of E. dentatus and P. ferruginea seeds did not reduce time to germination, providing no experimental support for the hypothesis that present-day slow germination results from the loss of scarification in moa guts. Paradoxically, although moa were New Zealand's largest native herbivores, the only seeds to survive moa gut passage intact were those of small-seeded herbs and shrubs.

Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB (Sanfilippo syndrome B) in a commercial emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) flock.

Clinicopathological diagnosis of mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (MPS IIIB; Sanfilippo syndrome B), an inherited autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disease, as a cause of losses in a commercial emu flock and screening breeders using a mutation-specific DNA test are described. Between 2012 and 2015, ∼5-10 juvenile emus from a few weeks to several months of age developed progressive neurological signs and died while others in the flock remained healthy. Necropsy of two affected siblings revealed multiple sites of haemorrhage, cytoplasmic periodic acid-Schiff and Luxol fast blue-positive inclusions in neurons, and aggregates of foamy macrophages in visceral organs. Affected emus were homozygous for the two-base deletion in the α-N-acetylglucosaminidase gene that causes MPS IIIB in emus. Mutation-specific DNA tests for MPS IIIB in emus were developed. Screening blood samples from 78 breeding emus revealed 14 (18%; 9 males, 4 females, and 1 unknown gender) carriers; an overall 0.09 mutant α-N-acetylglucosaminidase allele frequency. A "test and cull male carriers" programme, in which carrier males are culled but carrier females are retained, was proposed to avoid breeding affected emus together, ultimately eliminating the disease from future broods, and preserving the gene pool with as much breeding stock as possible. Molecular genetic diagnostic tests are simple, precise, and permit screening of all breeders for the mutant allele in any flock and can be used to eliminate MPS IIIB-related emu losses through informed breeding.

Aquatic bird bornavirus 1 infection in a captive Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): presumed natural transmission from free-ranging wild waterfowl.

An adult female emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) presented with anorexia, maldigestion, weight loss, and various subtle nervous deficits. After four months of unrewarding diagnostics, treatments, and supportive care, the emu was euthanized due to lack of clinical improvement and progressive weight loss. Gross pathology revealed a very narrow pylorus and multiple flaccid diverticula of the small intestines. Histopathological findings included severe lymphoplasmacytic encephalomyelitis and multifocal lymphocytic neuritis associated with the gastrointestinal tract. Immunohistochemistry and polymerase chain reaction on the brain were positive for an avian bornavirus (ABV), and partial sequencing of the matrix gene identified aquatic bird bornavirus-1 (ABBV-1), 100% identical to viruses circulating in wild Canada geese (Branta canadensis). As wild geese frequently grazed and defaecated in the emu's outdoor exhibit, natural transmission of ABBV-1 from free-ranging waterfowl to the emu was presumed to have occurred.

Bony Pits in the Ostrich (Struthio camelus) and Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) Bill Tip.

A specialized region of the bill tip characterized by a complex arrangement of mechanoreceptors and referred to as a bill tip organ, has been identified in numerous avians. A bill tip organ was initially inferred in kiwi species by the presence of numerous, bony pits in the rostrum of the bill, and later confirmed histologically. This study enumerates and compares the number and distribution of pits present in the bill tip in the ostrich and emu. The heads from 10 ostrich and 5 emu were prepared for osteological examination. The pattern and total number of pits was similar between the two species. However, the ostrich had significantly more pits in the regions underlying the Culmen and Gonys, whereas the emu displayed significantly more pits in the dorsal part of the mandibular rostrum. The relatively even distribution of pits in the inner and outer surfaces of both the mandibular and maxillary rostra suggest that the bill tip of the ostrich and emu are equally sensitive externally and intra-orally, as opposed to probing birds, where the major concentration of pits is located on the outer surfaces of the bill tips. The presence of pits in the bill tips of extant paleaognaths may be of relevance in interpreting the pits in the rostra of extinct therapod dinosaurs. The presence of bony pits in a region which is also well supplied with sensory nerves is highly suggestive of a bill tip organ in the ostrich and emu and which needs to be confirmed histologically. Anat Rec, 300:1705-1715, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Analysis of the moment arms and kinematics of ostrich (Struthio camelus) double patellar sesamoids.

The patella ("kneecap") is a biomechanically important feature of the tendinous insertion of the knee extensor muscles, able to alter the moment arm lengths between its input and output tendons, and so modify the mechanical advantage of the knee extensor muscle. However, patellar gearing function is little-explored outside of humans, and the patella is often simplified or ignored in biomechanical models. Here, we investigate patellar gearing and kinematics in the ostrich-frequently used as an animal analogue to human bipedal locomotion and unusual in its possession of two patellae at the knee joint. We use x-ray reconstruction of moving morphology (XROMM) techniques to capture the kinematics of the patellae in an adult ostrich cadaver, passively manipulated in flexion-extension. Moment arm ratios between the input and output tendons of each patella are calculated from kinematically determined centers of patellofemoral joint rotation. Both patellae are found to decrease the mechanical advantage of the extensor muscle-tendon complex, decreasing the tendon output force for a given muscle input force, but potentially increasing the relative speed of knee extension. Mechanically and kinematically, the proximal patella behaves similarly to the single patella of most other species, whereas the distal patella has properties of both a fixed retroarticular process and a moving sesamoid. It is still not clear why ostriches possess two patellae, but we suggest that the configuration in ostriches benefits their rapid locomotion and provides tendon protection.

Distribution and concentration of maternal progesterone in the yolk of Greater Rhea eggs (Rhea americana).

Progesterone is the most concentrated maternal yolk steroid characterized to date in birds; however, no information about it is available in ratite eggs. We collected freshly laid eggs from zoo-housed Greater Rhea females (Rhea americana) bred under similar rearing conditions during two breeding seasons to characterize concentration and distribution of maternal yolk progesterone. After high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, yolk hormone was measured using a commercial electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Progesterone concentrations were found to vary significantly among the yolk layers, supporting a follicular origin for this steroid in Greater Rhea eggs. Additionally, highly similar mean absolute yolk progesterone concentrations were detected between 2013 and 2015 breeding seasons (1,332.98 ± 82.59 and 1,313.59 ± 85.19 ng/g, respectively). These values are also comparable to those found in some domestic carinate species. Findings suggest that at population level, when rearing conditions are similar, mean absolute yolk maternal progesterone concentrations also appear bounded. Future research on the factors and mechanisms that regulate progesterone deposition in Greater Rhea eggs is needed to better understand whether its levels depend on different rearing conditions.

Effects of Packaging Methods on Shelf Life of Ratite Meats.

Over the last years a growing demand for ratite meat, including ostrich, emu, and rhea has been observed in the world. Ratite meat is recognised as a dietetic product because of low level of fat, high share of PUFA, favourable n6/n3 ratio, and higher amounts of iron content in comparison with beef and chicken meat. The abundance of bioactive compounds, e.g. PUFA, makes ratite meat highly susceptible to oxidation processes. Moreover, pH over 6 creates favourable environment for fast microbial growth during storage conditions affecting its shelf life. However, availability of information on ratite meat shelf life among consumers and industry is still limited. Thus, the aim of the present review is to provide current information about the effect of ratite meat packaging type, i.e. air packaging, vacuum packaging with skin pack, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), on its shelf life quality during storage, including technological and nutritional properties.

Gastrointestinal parasites of a population of emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) in Brazil

Abstract Emus are large flightless birds in the ratite group and are native to Australia. Since the mid-1980s, there has been increased interest in the captive breeding of emus for the production of leather, meat and oil. The aim of this study was to identify gastrointestinal parasites in the feces of emus Dromaius novaehollandiae from a South American scientific breeding. Fecal samples collected from 13 birds were examined by direct smears, both with and without centrifugation, as well as by the fecal flotation technique using Sheathers sugar solution. Trophozoites, cysts and oocysts of protozoa and nematode eggs were morphologically and morphometrically evaluated. Molecular analysis using PCR assays with specific primers for the genera Entamoeba, Giardia and Cryptosporidium were performed. Trophozoites and cysts of Entamoeba spp. and Giardia spp., oocysts of Eimeria spp. and Isospora dromaii, as well as eggs belonging to the Ascaridida order were found in the feces. Three animals were diagnosed with Giardia spp., and three were positive for Entamoeba spp. based on PCR techniques. After analyzing the data, we concluded that emus were infected enzootically by nematode and protozoan species.

Resumo Emus são aves grandes que não voam pertencentes ao grupo das ratitas e são originários da Austrália. Desde meados da década de 1980, aumentou o interesse pela criação de emus em cativeiro para a produção de couro, carne e óleo. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar parasitas gastrointestinais nas fezes de emus Dromaius novaehollandiae de um criatório científico da América do Sul. Amostras de fezes coletadas de 13 aves foram examinadas por esfregaços diretos, tanto com e sem centrifugação, quanto com a técnica de flutuação fecal utilizando solução de açúcar de Sheather. Trofozoítos, cistos e oocistos de protozoários e ovos de nematóides foram avaliados morfologicamente e morfometricamente. Foram realizadas análises moleculares utilizando ensaios de PCR com primers específicos para os gêneros Entamoeba, Giardia e Cryptosporidium. Trofozoítos e cistos de Entamoeba spp. e Giardia spp., oocistos de Eimeria spp. e Isospora dromaii, bem como ovos pertencentes à ordem Ascaridida foram encontrados nas fezes. Três animais foram diagnosticados com Giardia spp., e três foram positivos para Entamoeba spp. com base em técnicas de PCR. Depois de analisar os dados, concluímos que os emus estavam infectados enzooticamente por espécies de nematóides e protozoários.

Moa diet fits the bill: virtual reconstruction incorporating mummified remains and prediction of biomechanical performance in avian giants.

The moa (Dinornithiformes) are large to gigantic extinct terrestrial birds of New Zealand. Knowledge about niche partitioning, feeding mode and preference among moa species is limited, hampering palaeoecological reconstruction and evaluation of the impacts of their extinction on remnant native biota, or the viability of exotic species as proposed ecological 'surrogates'. Here we apply three-dimensional finite-element analysis to compare the biomechanical performance of skulls from five of the six moa genera, and two extant ratites, to predict the range of moa feeding behaviours relative to each other and to living relatives. Mechanical performance during biting was compared using simulations of the birds clipping twigs based on muscle reconstruction of mummified moa remains. Other simulated food acquisition strategies included lateral shaking, pullback and dorsoventral movement of the skull. We found evidence for limited overlap in biomechanical performance between the extant emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and extinct upland moa (Megalapteryx didinus) based on similarities in mandibular stress distribution in two loading cases, but overall our findings suggest that moa species exploited their habitats in different ways, relative to both each other and extant ratites. The broad range of feeding strategies used by moa, as inferred from interspecific differences in biomechanical performance of the skull, provides insight into mechanisms that facilitated high diversities of these avian herbivores in prehistoric New Zealand.